History of Astaxanthin
Born from humble origins, astaxanthin is perhaps one of my favorite substances.
A byproduct of a nearly ubiquitous alga, it's created during times of stress, but it imparts a calming effect on biological systems... including our own. I consider it an antidote to anger: calming, ubiquitous, and subtle.
The story begins in the algae of a birdbath, in ephemeral rain puddles, and indeed, in most small, temporary bodies of freshwater. The biflagellate, single-celled green bacterium, Haematococcus pluvialis , is the main producer of astaxanthin, so we will focus on this tiny creature. This single-celled organism lives all over the world, primarily in Europe, Africa, North America, and parts of India, but always in small bodies of water. It has been found in brackish water on coastlines, in freshwater basins filled with melting snow, in dried-up springs in Bulgaria, and even in fishponds in Romania.
Normally, this single-celled organism is green, as you've probably guessed from observing algae-covered birdbaths, and it's quite resilient. However, what's truly remarkable is what the algae does when it gets "angry." Under unfavorable or stressful conditions, the macrozooids lose their flagella and swell. They then begin producing astaxanthin in tiny lipid droplets that accumulate in the cytoplasm. These droplets turn the cells a bright red, and the cell can now withstand the extreme environmental conditions that caused its initial stress. Somehow, this miraculous red substance manages to protect the cell.
A few red droplets in a single-celled organism might not seem to have much of an impact on a global scale, but surprisingly, they do. This red substance enters the food chain and becomes the basis for almost everything red we see in crustaceans, fish, and birds. It's the red in salmon, lobsters, crabs, and shrimp. It's in the feathers of roseate spoonbills. It's in the eyes of quail. And, most importantly, it reaches us.
Within our bodies, astaxanthin does the same thing it does in the algae from which it originates. Cellular stress in algae can range from a high-salinity environment and nitrogen deficiency to elevated temperatures. Stress in a human cell can be imagined through many of the things we've already discussed, such as oxidative damage and free radicals. Astaxanthin works by calming an irritated system and promoting cell survival. It neutralizes free radicals, blocks damage caused by oxidative stress, and acts as an anti-inflammatory. It can alleviate pre-existing trauma and prevent new damage from occurring.
In terms of aging, it can repair some of the accumulated cell damage and help control cell survival in the future.
What is astaxanthin?
Astaxanthin is a xanthophyll carotenoid, which basically means a plant pigment that is usually very colorful. Other substances in this family include carotenes, which are yellow to orange; beta-carotenes, which are green to yellow; lutein, which is yellow; zeaxanthin, which makes Indian corn yellow; and lycopene, which makes tomatoes red. Astaxanthin is also red, but it's a bright red; intensely red. As I mentioned, it's the substance that makes lobsters and crabs red.
The other thing that makes this molecule different is its structure. Formally called 3,3'-dihydroxybeta-beta-carotene-4,4'-dione , or C40H52O4 , it's a long molecule consisting of a carbon chain in the center with an ionone ring at each end; essentially, it resembles a simple chain bracelet with a circular clasp. The conjugated double bonds in the center of the molecule are responsible for the red color, but, well, that's just a geeky detail.
What makes this molecule so special?
The simple fact that it is capable of doing so many incredible and positive things to the body without any real side effects.
Astaxanthin is many things:
Mitochondria / Energy systems: Antioxidant and free radical scavenger.
What's the difference, you ask? This is a key category for astaxanthin, so I'm going to go into a little more detail here.
An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that can produce free radicals, leading to chain reactions that can damage cells.
On the other hand, a free radical scavenger is a molecule capable of destroying free radicals. The term 'free radical' refers to a molecule that has one or more unpaired electrons. This makes them very unstable, and they move through the bloodstream, stealing electrons from other cells or donating their unpaired electrons.
Astaxanthin “acts as a safeguard against oxidative damage through several mechanisms, including singlet oxygen capture; scavenging of free radicals to prevent chain reactions; preservation of membrane structure by inhibiting lipid peroxidation; enhancement of immune system function and regulation of gene expression.”
Remember that free radicals and reactive oxygen species are produced by normal cellular functions, and most are handled by the body's own natural defenses.
However, uncontrolled free radicals react with proteins, lipids, and DNA to cause significant molecular damage and aging.
When our astaxanthin molecule reaches an individual cell (we'll discuss transport later), it is able to incorporate itself into both the cell membrane and the mitochondrial membrane. The molecule inserts itself directly into the lipid bilayers and spans the entire membrane.
Called transmembrane orientation, this privileged location allows the molecule to work its magic in various subcellular components. As a direct result, astaxanthin is a far more potent free radical scavenger (ROS) than its molecular cousins. It is 200 times more potent than other polyphenols, 150 times more potent than anthocyanins, 75 times more potent than alpha-lipoic acid, 550 times more potent than vitamin E, 54 times more potent than beta-carotene, 6,000 times more potent than vitamin C, and 800 times more potent than coenzyme Q.
When comparing antioxidant capacities, the results are essentially the same. Astaxanthin is 10 times more potent than lutein and zeaxanthin, 14 times more potent than vitamin E, 54 times more potent than beta-carotene, 65 times more potent than vitamin C, and 100 times more potent than alpha-tocopherol. Astaxanthin is simply more powerful than its competitors.
Astaxanthin is quite unique; it can accept or donate protons, but unlike many other substances, it does not become a pro-oxidant.
Therefore, any potential damage inflicted by free radicals is significantly reduced.
As an interesting example, one study measured the effects of astaxanthin on normal women and their DNA.
Before explaining the study, it's interesting to note that DNA damage can actually be measured. Specifically, we quantified the amount of 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine in plasma.
Unfortunately, constant DNA damage is a fact, and at least knowledge is power; therefore, we can begin to do something about it.
However, in 2010, a study analyzed healthy women around 21.5 years old who took a placebo, 2 mg, or 8 mg/day of astaxanthin for 8 weeks. Surprisingly, both doses of astaxanthin significantly reduced the rate of DNA breakdown.
An important message here is that even people in their twenties are experiencing measurable DNA damage. They're already aging; they just don't know it.
Seeking further evidence of astaxanthin's power to combat free radicals, eye tissues in diabetic rats were examined for evidence of hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress damage and its reversibility.
Not only do high glucose levels increase the production of oxygen free radicals, but they also deplete cellular antioxidant defenses. As expected, significant damage to the retina and surrounding eye tissues was observed in the control group. In comparison, the addition of astaxanthin to their diet, at various concentrations, was extremely beneficial.
“The eye tissues of rats treated with astaxanthin had significantly reduced levels of oxidative stress mediators (8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine, nitrotyrosine, and acrolein) and inflammatory mediators… and increased levels of antioxidant enzymes.”
Therefore, it was clearly demonstrated that the addition of astaxanthin had a protective effect and helped to preserve the architecture and function of the ocular tissues.
“Astaxanthin prevents the initiation of cancer by alleviating oxidative damage to DNA.”
“Astaxanthin is well known as a powerful free radical scavenger and an excellent anti-inflammatory agent that suppresses the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines.”
“It is worth mentioning that astaxanthin can act as a safeguard against oxidative damage through various mechanisms, such as singlet oxygen capture, radical scavenging, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, and regulation of gene expression related to oxidative stress.”
What about oxidative stress in people?
Overweight and obese individuals are believed to be particularly vulnerable to oxidative stress, making them good test subjects. To examine this, a 2011 study measured stress markers (malondialdehyde and isoprostanes) and antioxidant capacity markers (superoxide dismutase and total antioxidant capacity). As expected, the untreated obese population had higher stress markers and lower antioxidant capacity than normal-weight individuals. After three weeks of astaxanthin therapy in the obese population, remarkably, all stress markers and antioxidant capacity measures normalized—quite impressive, especially after just a couple of weeks.
In addition to its own inherent antioxidant activity, astaxanthin also stimulates the body's natural defenses and increases cellular levels of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and peroxidase. At least, this is known to occur in rats and rabbits.
"Astaxanthin is not only able to protect against free radicals on its own, it also stimulates the production of the antioxidant enzymes catalase, superoxide dismutase and peroxidase."
As Wu noted in 2015, astaxanthin can act as a safeguard through a variety of mechanisms, such as "singlet oxygen capture, radical scavenging, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, and regulation of gene expression related to oxidative stress."
To reinforce the idea that astaxanthin is good for mitochondria, I offer even more evidence.
Unfortunately, studies on the effects of astaxanthin specifically on mitochondria are somewhat rare. However, there is one large study involving beagles.
Both young and old beagles were fed astaxanthin for 16 weeks, and several things were discovered:
- Astaxanthin suppressed DNA damage; a lot in old dogs and a little in young dogs.
- Mitochondrial mass increased in geriatric dogs.
- Astaxanthin increased ATP or energy production by 12% to 14% in both young and old dogs.
Immune systems / Safety: Anti-inflammatory properties
The evidence for this quality is quite substantial, and we will examine it from the cellular level upwards.
In 2012, a human cell line was bathed in astaxanthin in a warm, comfortable laboratory. The magic substance inhibited ROS-induced NF-κB activation, which suppressed the production of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. If you recall from the chapter on inflammation, these cytokines can cause significant damage both locally and systemically. Limiting this pathway is, therefore, a good thing.
To further support this, human microglial brain cells, also in a comfortable environment, were perturbed with the addition of LPS (lipopolysaccharides), which incite the production of inflammatory factors, especially IL-6. In this 2010 study, the addition of astaxanthin to the culture medium suppressed the production of IL-6 and NF-κB.
Convinced that isolated cells benefited from astaxanthin, we turned our attention to real mammals.
Knowing that diabetes can wreak havoc throughout the body, but especially in the brain, researchers tried to improve outcomes in diabetic rats treated with astaxanthin.
- After five days of treatment with astaxanthin, the neurocognitive skills of diabetic rats were actually better than those of non-diabetic rats.
- The researchers observed the brains of the treated rats: inflammatory markers such as NF-κβ, TNF-α, IL-1B and IL-6 in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus improved markedly.
- In addition, astaxanthin appeared to help control blood sugar.
In another interesting brain study, rats were pretreated with astaxanthin and then subjected to a subarachnoid hemorrhage. Normally, blood in the brain is extremely inflammatory.
- Astaxanthin reduced neutrophil infiltration.
- It suppressed NF-κβ activity.
- It decreased the levels of IL-1β, TNF and ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule).
The treatment dramatically reversed brain inflammation, reducing secondary neuronal damage, protecting the blood-brain barrier, and preserving brain function.
Researchers love astaxanthin; they love torturing rats and saving brains. As a result, there is a wealth of research confirming the supplement's protective effect on rat brains.
Therefore, I will summarize the key message: Astaxanthin can cross the blood-brain barrier, enter neural tissue, and work its magic through a multitude of properties.
The next step in examining inflammation is to look at the grandfather of all inflammation: sepsis.
Sepsis is a whole-body phenomenon in which inflammation caused by a triggering factor leads to systemic damage. It is a life-threatening complication in which chemicals released into the bloodstream to fight infection trigger inflammatory responses throughout the body, causing more harm than good.
To test the protective effects of astaxanthin, rats were given a relatively high dose for 7 days and then subjected to a procedure that induced sepsis.
- Compared to untreated rats, astaxanthin reduced the systemic inflammatory response (lower TNF, IL-1β, IL-6).
- It relieved the damage to the organs.
- It reduced the peritoneal bacterial load.
- It improved the survival rate of the rats.
You may not care about the lives of these little septic rats, but you probably will if you ever find yourself in an ICU with a similar problem.
Immune System / Safety: Increased immunity
Okay, astaxanthin seems to be effective at removing harmful substances, but can it improve the body's ability to fight infections? Absolutely.
In the same 2010 study that showed astaxanthin could reduce DNA damage in young women, the study also noted an increase in the cytotoxic activity of natural killer (NK) cells and an increase in total T and B cell populations.
I won't bore you with more studies on rats, but these are the general findings:
- Astaxanthin activates T cells and can inhibit autoimmune reactions in rats.
- IgG and IgM levels increased in cats and dogs.
Meanwhile, in humans, our mucosal immune system is designed to defend against pathogens on mucosal surfaces such as the gastrointestinal tract or the respiratory tract. Leading this defensive arsenal are IgA molecules, which bind to threatening microorganisms and facilitate their elimination. As with everything beneficial in the body, IgA secretion declines with age. It also decreases with physiological and physical stress, nutritional deficiencies, and intense physical exertion.
The good news is that astaxanthin can restore these levels to normal.
Based on the properties we have reviewed, it is quite clear that astaxanthin has a positive effect on age-related diseases. This is especially true for cardiovascular diseases. In many laboratory animals, astaxanthin has been shown to reduce systolic blood pressure, improve cardiac function, and help prevent atherosclerosis and stroke.
In fact, many of the compounds we'll review are beneficial for preventing and even treating cardiovascular disease. This is almost a basic requirement for slowing down aging, but each substance also does something unusual or special, and astaxanthin is an excellent example. In particular, it's known to help with vision, skin, and even physical fitness.
Vision
One of the most common markers of aging that we all face is the need for reading glasses. At some point in our 40s or early 50s, this problem becomes seemingly unavoidable. We've all been in a restaurant where someone borrows another person's glasses. It might be a spouse or parents, but inevitably, a younger person ends up reading the bill or credit card receipt.
Ophthalmologists tell us that this phenomenon, presbyopia, is inevitable; it belongs to the same category as general aging. In fact, until now, I had never read or heard about anything that could help.
Why does this happen? First, it has nothing to do with being nearsighted or farsighted, which is a problem related to the shape of the eye. Presbyopia is related to the inherent flexibility of the lens inside the eye. To focus, the lens must change shape to accommodate near vision. As the body ages, this lens, as well as the muscles around it, become stiffer and less elastic, making it increasingly difficult to focus.
But why does this happen? Because our eyes are subjected to extreme stress with no inherent rescue mechanisms. More radiation and light penetrate eye tissue than any other tissue, and the lens has very little blood flow. The lens does have antioxidant enzymes, but these, of course, decline with age. Therefore, the lens experiences excessive and cumulative stress, with a reduced capacity to protect itself.
Therefore, it is not difficult to understand why vision fails in almost everyone around the same time period.
Astaxanthin to the rescue
In 2009, Japanese researchers administered 6 mg of astaxanthin daily to middle-aged individuals (46-65 years old) for one month. Notably, 60% of the subjects showed visual improvements, particularly in the following categories:
- "Difficulty seeing nearby objects."
- "Eye strain."
- "Blurred vision."
"The lens contains high levels of unsaturated fatty acids and a supply of oxygen. Singlet oxygen is generated in the lens by illumination with high-energy light... Recent studies indicated that astaxanthin can cross the blood-brain barrier and prevent oxidation of lens cells."
In a separate study, a combination of lutein, zeaxanthin, and astaxanthin over the course of two years was shown to provide stabilization and even improvement in visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and visual function in normal individuals.
So, our vision will eventually worsen, but at least now we can slow down the process.
Fur
Skin should be just another organ; it's a protective covering that shields us from the harsh environment we live in. It blocks radiation, repels chemicals, and defends against pathogens while retaining moisture and defining our boundaries.
However, skin is much more than this; it can even define who we are.
- It denotes race.
- Determine who is attractive and who is not.
- It has even become a canvas for artists.
For our conversation, however, the skin is the most external visual representation of aging because it is what we see in the mirror and when we look at other people.
In reality, our skin is simply another organ. The good news, however, is that because it's on the outside, we can treat it in two ways. We can apply corrective remedies topically, and we can consume them internally.
What does this mean for astaxanthin? It turns out that one of the coolest things astaxanthin does is block skin damage caused by the environment, especially radiation.
In human cell lines, particularly fibroblasts and melanocytes from the skin, astaxanthin has been shown to reduce DNA damage caused by UVA radiation. Remember that UVA radiation causes damage by creating free radicals that then destroy DNA.
Since most studies involving skin cells and radiation have been conducted on isolated cells in a petri dish, this effect also applies to real people. It turns out that astaxanthin can actually block sun damage from the inside. It can't block all DNA damage, so don't throw away your sunscreen, but it can block a significant portion.
Astaxanthin doesn't just prevent skin damage; it turns out it can also improve it. Again, the Japanese are leading the way here. In 2011, 30 healthy Japanese women between the ages of 20 and 55 used astaxanthin both as a supplement (6 mg) and as a topical cream for two months. The women were delighted; there was a definite improvement in:
- Expression lines (crow's feet).
- The size of age spots.
- Skin elasticity.
- The texture of the skin.
- The moisture content of corneocytes.
In essence, study after study has proclaimed the beautifying effects of astaxanthin. What could be better?
Physical state
As a detour on the anti-aging journey, let's talk about physical activity for a minute. As I've said before, this isn't a lesson on why anyone should exercise. However, I can tell you why astaxanthin can help you exercise.
At its core, physical activity is essentially any movement that raises the heart rate and engages the muscles. To achieve this, of course, the need for oxygen and energy increases. Therefore, we require the mitochondria to increase production. Mitochondria working harder, as we now know, lead to an increase in the production of free radicals and oxidative stress, and thus, the potential for cellular and DNA damage. Aerobic exercise is associated with up to an 80-fold increase in oxygen uptake, so this concern is quite valid. (Sedentary academics use this as an excuse to avoid exercise altogether.)
Astaxanthin, taken chronically, can actually prevent this excessive production of free radicals and make it safe to exercise.
To confirm this, we return to our laboratory animals. And, in the never-ending quest to find more ways to torture small mammals, young mice, loaded with astaxanthin, were put on a treadmill. While the control mice showed the standard amount of protein and DNA damage, the astaxanthin-treated mice did not.
In an even more convoluted study, rats fed astaxanthin were forced to swim. Not surprisingly, these rats showed reduced levels of oxidative stress and increased antioxidant capacity in their plasma compared to the controls.
Even more interestingly, the rats given astaxanthin swam longer. In what researchers called a "forced swim activity," the rats were encouraged to swim until they nearly drowned (submerged and unconscious for 3-5 seconds), at which point they were rescued and then decapitated. Torture methods aside, the rats given astaxanthin swam 29% farther. That's truly remarkable when you think about it. A 30% increase in exercise capacity is unheard of in the world of performance enhancement.
Does it work in humans?
This is really difficult to say. A study in 17-19 year olds who were given astaxanthin for six months showed improvements in some strength and endurance activities, but not all. Studies in trained athletes have been contradictory regarding actual physical improvements. Perhaps they should have tried the "forced swim activity."
An interesting fact:
Even if our maximum physical capacity doesn't improve with astaxanthin, the linear swimming speed of sperm in infertile men does. Men who were clinically infertile were given 16 mg/day for three months, and the pregnancy rate increased to 50% during the course of the study, compared to 10.5% in the control group.
Astaxanthin bioavailability
Returning to the molecule itself, astaxanthin exists as a fat-soluble compound. This means it follows the same intestinal absorption pathway as dietary fats. Dietary oils can enhance absorption, while a lack of bile or impaired lipid absorption can reduce it (don't take a fat blocker if you're dieting). Therefore, it's best to take it with food to improve absorption. Interestingly, it's 40% less bioavailable in smokers.
Once ingested, astaxanthin is absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver, where it is repackaged into lipoproteins and transported throughout the body (as both LDL and HDL).
Where does astaxanthin go in the body?
It's difficult to say for sure in humans, but in rats it accumulates in organs such as the spleen, kidneys, adrenal glands, and eyes. Accumulation and elimination through the skin appears to be much slower, but it does occur.
Pharmacodynamic data:
- A single dose of 10 mg can persist in human blood for 24 hours.
- A 100 mg dose can last up to 76 hours.
- Doses as low as 1 mg can increase blood levels if taken daily for up to 4 weeks.
How much do you need?
It's difficult to determine. Animals have received doses exceeding 120 mg/day without negative effects.
In humans, astaxanthin has been tested to assess its acute toxicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, embryotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity, and no problems have been found.
Natural sources of astaxanthin:
If you wish to consume it naturally, fish is recommended. Sockeye salmon has the highest content, ranging from 26-38 mg/kg. In comparison, farmed Atlantic salmon has only 6-8 mg/kg.
Dosage in the form of supplements
Capsule dosages vary between 1 and 40 mg/day, but most are in the range of 2 to 12 mg daily.
The popularity of astaxanthin is growing almost exponentially. In fact, as of 2014, patent applications for various uses were accumulating, covering a wide range of applications. These identified uses include:
- Prevention of bacterial infections.
- Reduction of inflammation.
- Prevention of vascular failure.
- Cancer treatment.
- Prevention of cardiovascular diseases.
- Inhibition of lipid peroxidation.
- Reduction of cell damage and body fat.
- Improved brain function and skin thickness.
Conclusion
This colorful, ubiquitous, and all-around helpful compound can only benefit you. It will reduce your stress, protect your DNA, smooth your wrinkles, clear your vision, and might even make you happier.